Pakissan.com; Care of Foot and Importance of Showing in working Performance of Equines

Care of Foot and Importance of Showing in working Performance of Equines
Lt Col Muhammad Ashraf

When the horse was living in its natural environment its hooves provided adequate protection for the underlying sensitive structures of the foot. As soon as man used the horse to carry loads or pull vehicles he must had observed that during certain seasons of the year, when working on hard and rough surfaces, the hooves wore away more quickly than they were renewed, exposing the sensitive structures which resulted in pain and lameness.

For the successful use of the horse, its comfort and welfare some method had to be devised to prevent the horn from being worn away. This necessity depends to a great extent on the quality and hardness of the horn, which varies with the climate and the soil. In hot, dry climates the horn is hard and horses can be worked to a considerable extent without shoes, whereas a wet climate is conducive to soft horn, which soon wears away.

The first protection employed was probably sandals of woven grass for horses that went lame on the line of march. This was followed by leather sandals, attached by thongs, which were later strengthened by metal plates or studs.

With the passage of time the idea of protecting the foot with a plate of metal, nailed to the wall, was developed and soon it must had been discovered that it could be modified to secure a firm foothold or alleviate some types of lameness. The objectives of shoeing are to prevent the feet of horses from being worn down excessively when working on artificial surfaces such as modern roads, to prevent the wall from splitting, and to prevent slipping.

" For the want of a nail, the shoe was lose; for the want of a shoe the horse was lose; and for the want of a horse the rider was lost, being overtaken and slain by the enemy, all for the want of care about a horseshoe nail. "
Benjamin Franklin (1706 - 1790)

Normal Foot

A normal front foot is rounded at the toe, with the curve of the wall on the outer side wider than the inner, but the slope of the inner quarter is more upright than the outer. The wall is thickest at the toe, thinner at the quarters and thinnest at the heels. The outer wall is slightly thicker than the inner one. The sole is slightly concave and the frog is large, relation and with deep central and collateral clefts.

The surface of the wall is not absolutely flat but broken by a wavy growth of horn, which appears as a number of rings parallel with the coronet. These rings are a normal feature and indicate alterations in the rate of growth due to either changes in the foot or some febrile disease. It is important to differentiate these rings from those associated with chronic laminitis, which are characterized, by being widely spaced at the heels and converging towards the toe.

The foot axis and the angle of the wall at the heels should correspond and be between 45o and 50 o. the height at the heel, in comparison with the quarter and the toe, should be approximately as 1 or 1 ½: 2:3. A normal hind foot is oval at the toe and widest towards its posterior third. In comparison with a front foot the sole is more concave, the frog smaller, the slope of the wall at both the inner and outer quarters more upright and the foot axis at an angle between 50 o and 55 o.

Abnormal Foot4

It is often stated that the shape of the foot is determined by the conformation of the limb. This is true of feet, which are abnormal in shape consequent upon irregular wear due to such defects as toe-in or toe-out conformation. But this is not invariably the case as many feet are abnormal in shape due to a natural defect, which is in no way associated with the conformation of the limb.

Abnormally sloping or oblique feet have a long toe and are low at the heels. The angle of the foot axis is decreased and the angle at the toe is less than 45 o in front and 50 o in hind feet.

Upright or stumpy feet have a short toe and are high at the heels. The angle of the foot axis is increased and the angle at the toe is more than 50o in front and 55o in hind feet.

Club or mule feet are an accentuated upright foot. The angle of the foot axis is greatly increased and the angle at the toe is in excess of 60 o in front and 65 o in hind feet. As a rule when the condition is bilateral it is congenital in origin, but unilateral cases are more often associated with disease or chronic contraction of the digital flexor tendons.

Flat feet, as the name implies, the sole lacks its normal concavity. The condition is conducive to bruising and is most frequently seen affecting the front feet of heavy draught horses and hunters.

Dropped sole; The sole is convex and below the bearing surface of the wall. It is a feature of chronic laminitis and is due to pressure on the sole by the toe of the rotated third phalanx.

Thin sole is an inherited condition and is usually accompanied by a thin wall. The conformation of the foot is normal but the sole being thin easily yield under pressure. In consequence, horses with this conformation are subject to bruised soles.

Brittle feet .is due to an inherited defect but in the majority of cases it is encountered in dry weather, due to loss of moisture from the hoof. White feet appear to be more frequently affected. Brittle feet are very liable to crack and create shoeing problem as they are easily broken and split by the nails. Either regularly washing or soaking the feet in water or by the application of Vaseline or oil to limit evaporation can improve the condition. A crack can be prevented from extending by cutting a groove across its apex.

Modern Concepts About Anti Concussion Mechanism of Foot
After years of research, scientists have concluded that current models of how hooves work are incorrect. Instead a horse's feet function as hydraulic systems similar to gel-filled athletic shoes: fluid dynamics dissipates the shock wave that would otherwise send stresses up through the horse's legs.

In fact some time-honored horse keeping practices interfere with the action of this hydraulic system, contributing to foot soreness, navicular syndrome and other sources of lameness. But by adapting management and farriery techniques based on this new model of hoof hemodynamics, one can enable hooves to function as nature intended, preserving soundness and offering new hope for horses previously thought to be incurably lame.

In 1805, a group of German scientists proposed what would become known as the depression theory. As the hoof strikes the ground, the scientists said, the pastern descends, pressing on the digital cushion, which absorbs the shock of the impact; the laminae act to redirect the forces from both above and below.

In 1809, an English scientist developed a competing idea, known as the pressure theory, which holds that the impact on the sole and frog compresses the digital cushion, which in turn causes the hoof cartilage and wall to flex outward, dissipating the energy of the impact. Both of these theories, which prevailed for nearly 200 years, agreed that blood is pushed out of the hoof at impact, accounting for some of the shock dissipation. And both share the idea that the digital cushion the wedge-shaped tissue mass that fills the areas between the frog below and the deep digital flexor tendon above is the major shock absorber.

These theories have something else in common: two serious problems. For one thing, if the digital cushion is the hoof's major shock absorber, then it is reasonable to assume that, as with the gel-filled shoes, horses with softer, springier digital cushions should be better able to withstand stresses and should remain sounder. But when researchers examined horses' feet, the opposite turned out to be true. Soundness correlated strongly with stiffer, cartilaginous digital cushion. Horses complaints were the ones with the soft, springy digital cushions.

The other problem is that if, as the primary shock absorber, the digital cushion transmits the energy that causes the hoof wall to flex outward, then at the moment of impact, the amount of pressure on it should increase dramatically. In 1994, however, Danish researchers used accelerometers, sophisticated instruments for detecting and measuring force changes, to determine that this wasn't the case.

When they traced the transmission of energy from the ground through the hoof and the bones of the lower leg, they found that, in both shod and unshod horses, pressure on the digital cushion was zero as the hoof moved through the air, as expected, but then the pressure declined to negative numbers when the hoof struck the ground. Both the pressure and the depression theories had to be wrong.

So just how does the foot cope with these pressure Examinations of equine foot anatomy had uncovered another clue. Invariably, sound horses with tough, stiff digital cushions also had a large number of tiny blood vessels micro vessels interlaced throughout the lateral cartilages, which arise on the coffin bone on either side of the digital cushion in the heel portion of the hoof. The horses with "springy" digital cushions also had thin collateral cartilages that all of those tiny vessels meant that a substantial amount of blood was being forced through the lateral cartilages with each step

Piecing together all these clues the hard digital cushions and all the vessels that correspond with soundness, the negative pressure on the digital cushion at impact, in fact, fluid that dissipates the shock to a horse's feet. But the fluid motion comes not from the digital cushion itself but rather from the blood flowing through all those tiny vessels.

This insight led to develop the hemodynamic flow theory, which states that as a horse's foot strikes the ground, the outward flex of the lateral cartilage creates a vacuum, drawing blood swiftly out from under the navicular bone and into and through the network of micro-vessels that lace the lateral cartilage.

In a horse's hoof, that sudden rush of blood being sucked through the microvessels is enough to lower the pressure on the digital cushion into the negative numbers, dissipating the shock wave that would otherwise travel up the leg.Sound horses he tended to share three characteristics, a large frog that makes ground contact, prominent bars that bear significant weight and a short toe. One characteristic that sound horses did not have in common was breed. Genetics is a factor in soundness, but it isn't the "biggie" that everyone thinks it is.

The Design Of Horseshoes

The type of shoe fitted varies according to the horse and the work it is expected to perform, but a number of basic design features are common to all shoes. The width of the shoe is related to the natural bearing surface of the foot and should cover the wall, white line and outer border of the sole.

The average width of a shoe is about twice the thickness of the wall but it should be a little wider at the toe where wear is greatest and a little narrower at the heels so as not to impinge on the frog. A shoe which is too wide predisposed to grit and stones lodging under it and when worn is conducive to slipping.

The thickness of the shoe is related to its size. If it is too thick it raises the foot excessively from the ground, which reduces normal frog pressure; in addition, excessively large nails are required to fit the deep nail holes. To preserve the balance of the foot the shoe must be of uniform thickness. If the toe is excessively thick, it puts strain on the flexor tendons and is conducive to stumbling. On the other hand, if the heels are excessively thick they tend to straighten the pastern, raise the frog off the ground and in time can lead to an overshot joint.

The foot surface of the shoe is that which supports the hoof. There are a number of varieties, each with its special features. A plain flat surface, which covers the wall, white line and border of the sole, provides a firm basis for the foot to rest on and is suitable for
all normal front and hind feet.
A seated - out surface has the inner edge slipped to relieve pressure on the border of the sole. Seated out shoes have the disadvantage that grit and stones accumulate under them and in heavy going they are liable to be sucked off.

The ground surface of the shoe has to be considered in relation to the foothold it provides its wearing properties and its support for the nails. Plain stamped shoe has the inner edge of the ground surface sloped. This makes it lighter than a plain stamped shoe with the same width of foot surface, gives a better foothold are reduces suction in heavy going.

A convex shoe has the inner edge of the ground surface thicker than the outer edge by as much as ¼". This shoe is used for horses, which wear out their shoes quickly. The inner edge is worn first and saves the outer edge and nail heads for later wear. A fullered shoe has a groove or crease round the ground surface, which creates toe ridges.

This improves the foothold and prevents slipping, but does not wear as well as a plain flat surface. As the nail-holes are stamped in the groove the nail heads are supported only on two sides, but this has the advantage that the exactness of their fit can be seen and the removal of single nails facilitated. A concave fullered shoe combines the advantages of concaving and fullering and is the most popular general-purpose shoe for hunters' hacks and ponies.

Weight Of The Shoe

It is important and, generally speaking, the lighter the shoe the better but obviously it must be related to wear. The extent to which heavy shoes tire a horse is all too frequently overlooked. The shoes for a heavy draught horse weighs about 5 lbs., and, therefore, if the horse takes 30 strides per minute it has to make the necessary effort to raise 150 lbs., for each leg, a total of 600 lbs., for all four legs.

At the end of an average day's work of 4 hours at the walk, this comes to over 60 tons. When it is realized that this extra weight of the shoes is at the end of a long arm level, it is easy to appreciate the expenditure of effort necessary for a horse to perform a day's work and the contribution made by heavy shoes to the stresses on the limbs and the horse's fatigue.

The Wear Of The Shoe

It depends on numerous factors; the material from which the shoe is made, the surface of the ground and roads traveled over, the work performed and the conformation and action of the individual horse.

1. A set of shoes on average should last 4 to 5 weeks or a distance of between 100 and 350 miles. Horses wear out their shoes more quickly when working on macadamized and concrete roads, which provide a poor foothold, and especially when they are wet. The pace at which a horse works and the type of vehicle it draws also has a marked effect on the length of wear of its shoes.

2. A horse with a normal action will wear its shoes evenly with the exception of the outside of the toe, which always is more worn. Hind shoes wear out more rapidly than front shoes and some horses will wear out their shoes twice as fast as others.

Horses, which wear out their shoes faster than average, should not be fitted with a heavier shoe but shod with either a wide web shoe or a convex shoe. However, uneven wear of a shoe is a different problem and altering the form and distribution of the iron by turning up the worn part, for example the toe should make correction.

Clips

A clip is a thin triangular projection drawn from the outer edge of a shoe at the toe, quarter or heel. A correctly drawn and angulated clip should be low and broad, rest accurately against the wall and not exceed in height double the thickness of the shoe. A narrow pointed clip does not give adequate support and should the shoe become loose it is all too easily trodden on and may puncture the foot. Care must be taken when drawing a clip that a ridge is not left on the foot surface to cause pressure and result in lameness.

Calkins

A calkin is formed either by turning down or welding a piece of steel to the heel of a shoe. Calkins provides a good foothold on soft ground and country roads and assist draught horses to back and hold back loads, but are of little advantage on modern roads.

Calkins should be low, broad and square, set at right angles, not more than twice the thickness of the shoe and both of the same height. Inevitably, calkins result in excessive wear at the toe, which is worn through before the shoe, is worn thin, thus wasting a lot of iron. To counter this the toe can be made thicker. Care must be taken to ensure that the calkin and wedge heel are equal in height and that the calkin is not too high, as it tends to catch and twist the foot.

Studs

Applied at the heel they provide traction at the moment hoof lands on the ground, reducing the forward slide and preventing lateral slip. Placed at toe they improve traction as the hoof leaves the ground. Studs are shaped to get the most grip in particular hazardous conditions. The longest studs, protruding as much as three-quarters of an inch from the shoe surface, are made for mud. Pointed studs bite nicely into snow and ice but are also useful on wet turf and clay. Short, flat, squarish models, called road studs, are typically used for traction on dirt, gravel and some paved roads and also on dry grass.

Horseshoe Nails

Machine made nails are smooth and polished and made from the best mild steel. They can be driven through the hoof without breaking, buckling or splitting, but yet are sufficiently ductile not to snap when the point is turned over or wrung off. The shank of a nail should be sufficiently ductile to withstand being bent 4 or 5 times through 90o without breaking. The head, neck, shank and point of a horseshoe nail are all designed to meet its special requirements.

Selection of shoe

The shoe selected depends primarily on the intended use for the horse. Other factors influencing the selection are types of terrain, need for traction, way of going, and conformation. Shoes may be custom-made by a farrier, but most shoes are keg (machine-made) shoes.

A variety of kinds and sizes of keg shoes are used. Machine-made "hot shoes" are made with long branches so one can shape them. Machine-made "cold shoes" are designed like machine-made "hot shoes" but have shorter and finished heels. They are fitted without a forge. Because they are more difficult to shape and to properly nail on the foot, they are not used very often by skilled farriers, who prefer the "hot shoe. Keg shoes are also classified as plain, heeled, or toed and heeled. The heeled shoes have heel calks, and the heel and toed shoes have heel and toe calks. Calks increase traction on slick, soft, or rough terrain.

When a farrier selects a shoe he has to take account of the class of horse, its size, weight and the work it performs. Observing its action, its conformation, the shape of its feet and examining the wear of its shoes can ascertain any modifications to the shoe that may be necessary for an individual horse.

Shoeing of the Performing Horse

Machine made shoes, with the exception of racing and training plates, are of three basic types. The plain stamped shoe, the three-quartered fullered shoe and the concave fullered shoe. These shoes are made in a whole range of styles, weights and sizes and can be supplied with heels cut and rounded, clips drawn, double calkins, double wedges, wedge heel and calkin; hind, shoes have the nail-holes more widely spaced to facilitate drawing double toe and quarter clips. This range of shoes enables a suitable set to be selected for the majority of horses and fitted cold.

Racing Plates

Plates are a type of keg shoe used on racehorses. Steel plates are very seldom used on running horses because aluminum is lighter. They are available in two sizes light or heavy and can be obtained with a variety of combinations for toe and heel calks. The front plates can be obtained plain, which means that there are no calks on the plate. A standard toe has a toe calk. If the toe calk is lower than the regular height, it is a low toe plate. Heel calks on the front plates are referred to as "jar calks".

Hind aluminum racing plates are also available with various toe and heel calk combinations. The heel calk on a hind plate is referred to as a "block" or "sticker," depending on its shape. The sticker, or "mud-calk," is set across the heel, whereas the block is set lengthwise. Blocks cause a horse's hind feet to break over faster, thus preventing the track surface from burning the ergot area. Stickers increase the traction on muddy tracks.

Racehorses require the lightest shoe possible to protect the foot and provide a good foothold, but it must be strong enough not to twist, bend or break. There are two common varieties of racing plates and both are made of aluminum the standard racing plate with a single groove and the so-called "double grip" which has two grooves and is reputed to give a better foothold.

Racing plates have beveled or "penciled off" heels. Front shoes are fitted close and short to prevent brushing and the shoe being wrenched off. Hind shoes are set well back to prevent over-reaches, and whether the heels are plain, with a calkin on the outside heel and a plain inside heel or a calkin on each heel, is decided by the going and the horse' action. Front and hind shoes are secured with 6 or 7 nails; with the heel nails placed will back to prevent the shoe from spreading or bending. A set of plates weighs from 170 to 225 grams. For training, slightly heavier concave fullered shoes, made of mild steel, are fitted.

Steeplechasers require a shoe as light as possible but sufficiently strong to withstand hitting obstacles without twisting or bending. A mild steel shoe, the same pattern as a single groove racing plate and weighing 12 to 450 grams per set, meets these requirements. Front shoes may have a toe clip and beveled heels, which are fitted close and short. Hind shoes are set well back, may have double toe-clips and have either two small calkins or a wedge heel and calkin. As for racing plates, each shoe is secured with 6 or 7 nails but the heel nails are not placed quite so far back.

Hunter, Polo And Hack Shoes

Polo shoes differ from shoes in that the inside rims on the web are raised above the outside rim. This shape increases traction, prevents sliding, and enables the foot to roll over faster. Polo horses and western barrel-racing horses make many turns at high speeds. The polo shoe allows the horse to pivot on the shoe and maintain a toe grip regardless of where the foot breaks. Barrel racing shoes have a high outside rim to help prevent sliding when the horse goes around the barrel.

The polo or rimmed shoe is made from concave mild steel bar and fashioned in a special tool. The foot surface is flat but the ground surface has a sharp rim round the inside edge which gives an excellent grip on turf. Front shoes have beveled heels and the inside branch is fitted close. Hind shoes have rounded solid toes and are set back. The outer heel has a small square calkin and the inner heel has either a narrow calkin or is left plain. The concave fullered hunting shoe with the heels of the hind shoes tapped to take studs has taken its place.

A Hunter has to jump, gallop and turn at speed. To meet these demands a shoe is required which provides a good foothold and remains secure on heavy going. To this end a concave fullered shoe with a plain flat foot surface is the most satisfactory. Front shoes have a toe-clip and the inner branches are fitted close to prevent brushing.

The heels should be a little shorter than the bearing surface, about 1/8? and beveled at the same angle as the heels of the foot to reduce the chance of being struck and wrenched off. Hind shoes have the toe slightly squared or rounded on both edges and double toe-clips.

These features allow the shoe to be set back to prevent over-reaches and the flexor tendons of the front limb being struck. It is customary for the shoe to have a wedge heel and calkin or two calkins in which case the inner clakin is fitted close and sloped slightly downwards and inwards. A set of shoe weighs from 1.5 to 1.8 kgs.

Show jumpers have to be able to twist and turn at speed and to pull up sharply. Competitions are held both out-of-doors and in indoor arenas and horses have to meet the challenge of changes in the siting of obstacles and great variations of pace. These problems are met by shoeing show jumpers with the concave fullered hunter shoe but with the heels tapped to take studs.

The position of the studs and the types used is very much a matter of personal preference, the going and the performance required of a horse in a particular competition or jump off. Front shoes have heels beveled at the same angle as the heels of the foot and are fitted as for hunting shoes.

If one stud is fitted it is placed in the outer branch either between the two heel nails or at the heel, and when two studs are fitted, one is placed at each heel. Hind shoes have the heels cut off at an obtuse angle and fitted as for hunter shoes. When two studs are fitted one is placed in each heel and when only one then it is placed in the outside heel.

Hack Shoes are rarely used for more than a few hours each day and horses do a lot of roadwork. For this reason they require heavier shoes than hunters. Front shoes are concave fullered, similar in shape and fitted as for a hunter shoe except that the heels project about a ¼? beyond the bearing surface and are cut off at a more obtuse angle. Hind shoes are either plain or concave fullered.

The toe is square or rounded and the shoe is set back a little to prevent over-reaches. A low calkin or square stud is placed at each heel to secure a good foothold. A set of shoes weighs front 4 to 4 ½ lbs.]

Riding ponies are shod all round with concave fullered shoes, front shoes have the heels cut off level with the bearing and at the same slope as the heels of the foot. The inner branch is fitted shoe. Hind shoes are set back a little with the heels cut off square. They are either left plain, fitted with low square studs or tapped to take studs to meet the requirements of various activities. Toe clips in front and behind are optional. A set of shoes weighs from 2 to 2 ½ lbs.

Carriage And Draught Horse Shoes

Draught horses have to haul, start and back loads. The type of shoe fitted varies with the district and the road surface. For all general purposes a plain stamped shoe in front and a plain stamped shoe behind with a thickened toe and calkins is satisfactory.

As draught horses work at a slow pace brushing is not a problem and, in consequence, the heels of both front and hind shoes can be left long and fitted wide to provide a firm base on which the foot can rest. On the smooth surfaces of modern roads toe-pieces and calkins provide no extra grip or foothold and once a horse has become accustomed to this type of shoe it takes some time to adapt to a flat shoe. A set of shoes weighs from 16 to 20 lbs.

Mule Or Donkey Shoes

The anatomy and physiology of the mule or donkey's foot is the same as for the horse. In comparison with the horse, the mule's foot is long and narrow, the donkey's even more so. It is more rounded at the toe, the sole is more vaulted and the heels are very upright and high. The wall is thicker and the horn more dense. Mules and donkeys are frequently worked both under load and in draught without shoes.

Then, the only attention their feet require is for the edge of the hoof to be kept rounded off with a rasp to prevent it splitting, and for the toe to be kept short and the heels lowered. In wet weather and when working on modern roads shoeing is necessary. A mule or donkey shoe is a plain stamped shoe, which is narrower and lighter than the pattern used for horses.

As a rule the heels of both front and hind shoes are left plain, although on occasions the heels of hind shoes are turned down to form calkins. Each shoe is secured with 5 or 6 nails, which have to be short with a strong shank as the standard horseshoe nail is invariably buckled by the hard horn of the mule or donkey's hoof.

Shoeing of Foals

Before foals have their feet attended to for the first time they should be halter broken and have received some preliminary training. They should be accustomed to have their legs manipulated, feet picked up, standing on three legs and having their feet tapped with a hammer. Time spent on this training is well spent when one considers the number of times a horse is shod during its life.

In the majority of cases the only restraint required is an attendant at the head, but until the foal stands quietly it is a good plan to have it standing in the corner of a loose box and held against the wall. The foal should be held facing the wall when working on its hind feet, as it will tend to go forward, and backed into the corner when working on its front feet to prevent it running back.

New and Improved Shoes

Borium (a metal alloy) can be applied to horseshoes with an oxyacetylene torch to improve the grip and life of the shoe. The roughened surface increases grip on ice, pavement, and dry grass. Borium is harder than any substance except diamonds, so it doubles or even triples the life of the shoe. Application of borium is particularly important before long trail rides over rough terrains; it should also be applied to the shoes of packhorse and mules.

During the past two centuries, new technology in science of farriery has new styles of steel horseshoes. All of these shoes must be nailed to the hoof wall. However, the GLU-STRIDER, a new concept, is glued to the outer surface of the hoof wall. The purposes of these shoes are therapeutic; they are not designed to replace the conventional shoe.

Important Consideration Before Shoeing

Wear of The Shoe Defects of conformation and abnormalities of feet always affect work and performance. The most important defects are those of the pastern foot axis, toe-in and toe-out, which result in abnormal wear of the shoe.

Therefore, before fitting a new set of shoes the wear of the old shoes must be studied. Wear provides valuable information regarding any defects of conformation or abnormalities of gait and any faults in the previous preparation of the foot or in the making of the shoe. It is upon the state of wear of a shoe that much information is gleaned towards the preparation of the foot and the selection of the correct shoe.
When a shoe has worn evenly it indicates that the foot has been reduced to its correct proportions and the type of shoe is suitable. Some horses, with a normal action, wear out their shoes more quickly than average and in these cases a wider or a convex shoe rather than a thicker shoe should be fitted.
Unevenness of wear results from a variety of causes. It may be due to faulty preparation of the foot, fitting the wrong type of shoe, abnormal conformation of limb or pastern foot axis, or the horse's gait, whereby it goes on its toe or heels.

Dressing The Foot

After removing the shoes and before proceeding to prepare the foot, its shape and proportions must be studied and any defects noted that would have to be taken into account when dressing the foot.

Attention To The Frog And Sole

For the frog to play its important role in the anti-concussion mechanism of the foot it must be large, firm and prominent, but not project beyond the bearing surface at the heels by more than the thickness of the shoe. The frog should be pared only to remove any ragged or loose tags, or in the treatment of thrush. But it may be trimmed lightly to allow free use of the hoof pick in the clefts.

The sole protects the foot against injury and excessive paring is a bad and unnecessary practice. Only flakes of the sole that have failed to shed should be removed.

Lowering Overgrown Feet

It is not always easy to decide how much of an overgrown foot requires to be taken down when leveling the bearing surface. Cutting away a thin strip of dead horn from the inner edge of the wall and exposing the white line can resolve this. A slight overgrowth of horn is easily reduced with a drawing knife, but if it is excessive then either a toeing knife or hoof cutter is required. Using a toeing knife requires care and practice, because it easily twists in the hand and can cut through the wall and sole into the sensitive foot. On the other hand hoof cutters are easy to use, are safe in unskilled hands and leave a more level surface.

Faults In Dressing The Foot

Paring the frog.
Paring the sole.
Over-lowering the toe.
Over-lowering the heels.
Over-lowering the bearing surface.
Uneven bearing surface.
Opening-up the heels.
Rasping the wall.
Dumping" or "stumping-up" the toe.

Shoeing Defective Feet

Defective feet are classified as feet, which are misshapen or abnormal due to conformation of the foot or limb, or have become misshapen due to neglect or bad shoeing.

Flat Foot Seated-out shoe is a most satisfactory shoe for flat feet as it relieves the sole of pressure at its junction with the wall. It has a wide web with the inner edge of the foot surface seated. The seating is carried back to the nail-holes and around the shoe except at the heels, which are left flat to allow normal weight bearing.

Upright Foot Upright feet do not require any special shoes but care must be taken to ensure that the feet are correctly dressed and the normal pastern foot axis maintained. If not, the foot gradually becomes more upright, which can lead to a knuckling over of the fetlock joint.

Twisted Foot (Turn Out and Turn in Foot) A twisted foot is corrected by gradually lowering, at 2 or a 3-week interval, the side of the wall, which is too high until a level-bearing surface is obtained. When this is attained the weight over the bearing surface is correctly distributed and normal frog and sole pressure are established. A standard shoe is fitted but made to conform to the adjudged normal outline of the foot and not that of the twisted foot.

On the inside of the foot where the wall turns in the shoe is fitted wide, to conform with the adjudged normal outline of the bearing surface, and its sharp outer edge is beveled off. On the outside of the foot where the wall bulges out the shoe is fitted as close as possible, consistent with being able to drive the nails safely, and the overhanging wall is rasped off flush with the shoe.

Weak Or Low Heels Weak heels are corrected by cutting down the curved-in portion of the wall until normal weight bearing is established anteriorly, and posteriorly to the angle of the heel. A bar shoe is the most suitable shoe for treating weak heels as it relieves pressure on the curved in portion of the wall by transferring it to the frog. A bar shoe is an ordinary shoe which is joined at the heels, by a bar that presses on the frog.

Contracted Foot The method of treatment employed to treat a contracted foot will depend on the cause. If it is associated with disease or injury, which responds to treatment, then as normal function of the limb returns so gradually the foot will regain its normal shape. On the other hand if it is associated with an incurable condition no useful purpose will be served by instituting any measures to effect expansion. Slipper shoe.is sloped outward, which allows the wall to expand under the pressure of weight bearing.

Smith's expanding shoe is a shoe with both branches hinged, 1 ½ to 2 inch from the heels, and fitted with bar-clips. Across the heels is fitted a threaded bolt and nut arrangement which is tightened to force the heels apart. Adjustments are easily made and cases have been recorded in which the heels of the foot have been expanded by a ¼ inch after a week's treatment.

Injuries by Abnormalities of Gait and Their Remedy by Shoeing

These injuries are frequently referred to as "interferences" and are caused by defective action and poor conformation. This results in a limb being struck by either the shoe of the opposite foot or of a hind foot and causing a contusion or wound. It may be due to working an unfit or tired horse, faulty dressing of the foot or bad shoeing. Such cases are easily dealt with by careful attention to dressing and balancing the feet and fitting the shoes. But only corrective shoeing can alleviate cases due to defects of conformation such as toe-out, and abnormalities of gait.

Before a horse is shod to prevent these injuries their cause must be sought and identified. The conformation of the horse's limbs and pastern foot axis must be examined and its action observed at all paces. Each horse has to be considered individually in order to select the most suitable shoe to prevent injury, as all horses with the same abnormality of gait do not necessarily require the same shoe or to be shod in the same manner.

Brushing Brushing is the term used to describe an injury caused by the horse striking the inside of one leg, generally in the region of the fetlock, with the shoe of the opposite foot. The action taken to prevent brushing has to be related to the cause, the frequency and the severity of the injury. Many cases of slight brushing in front can be overcome by simply fitting a flat and lighter shoe, and if behind, by shoeing without calkins or by replacing the inside calkin with a wedge heel. If these simple measures do not prevail then fit the inner branch of the shoe close, and rasp off the overhanging wall until it is flush with the shoe. A variety of shoes are recommended to prevent brushing injuries. Each shoe has its special merit, which has to be related to the cause in each individual case.

Knocked-up shoe The inner branch is narrow, thus reducing the bearing surface, with the ground surface slopped downwards and inwards and rounded off. This shoe is recommended to prevent brushing injuries caused by the toe or mid-quarter of the shoe.
Feather-edged shoe This is an exaggerated type of knocked-up shoe. The inner branch, which is blind, is very narrow and higher than the outer.
Knocked - down shoe The foot surfaces of both branches are the same width, but the edge of the inner branch where it strikes the opposite leg is knocked down and rounded off. This shoe is recommended for horses with a toe-out conformation and which brush with the posterior quarter and heel of the shoe.

Speedy Cutting

This is an injury, which occurs on the medial aspect of the limb, in the region of the knee, when the horse is moving at speed. It ranges from a contusion to an open wound and is caused by the inner edge of the toe or branch of the shoe of the opposite foot. It is more liable to occur in horses that are base narrow, have turned-out toes and larger flat feet, and tends to happen when the hose is leading with the wrong leg or changing legs.

Shoe for speedy-cutting. This shoe is suitable for both speedy-cutting and brushing. The inner branch is made straight from toe to quarter with the outer edge rounded off. The branch may be left blind but as speedy-cutting happens at speed it is advisable to secure the branch with 1 or 2 heel nails. After fitting the shoe the projecting wall is rounded off level with the straight edge.
There are a number of inherent disadvantages associated with fitting anti-brushing and cutting shoes. These include the difficulty of securing a blind branch, the close fitting of the inner branch, which may result in pressure on the sole, reduction of the bearing surface, which can lead to uneven distribution of weight, and, as the shoes do not provide a very secure foothold, they are conducive to slipping.

Forging

Forging or clacking is due to faulty action and occurs at the trot when the horse strikes the heel or inside of the toe of a front shoe with the toe of the corresponding hind shoe. Also, it can occur when the hind shoe is carried outside the front foot and the inside of the toe strikes the heel of the outside branch of the front shoe.
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Fitting a concave shoe in front and increasing the break-over by rolling the toe and slightly raising the heels can prevent many cases of forging. If this does not prove satisfactory then fit a hind shoe with a well-rounded square or dub toe. The shoe should be set well back and the protruding wall rounded and rasped flush with the shoe. To delay break-over the heels should be lowered and left a little long so as to trail when the foot comes to the ground and act as a brake.

Diamond toed shoe This is a hind shoe with the ground surface, on both sides of the toe, beveled downwards and backwards. the heels are about a 1/8? lower than the toe and the shoe is fitted with quarter clips.

Over-Reaching

An over-reaching is the name given to an injury, which occurs between the back of the knee and the bulbs of the heels. It is caused by the inner edge of the ground surface of a hind shoe striking the front leg when the horse is moving at a fast pace, and the front leg is not sufficiently extended or the hind leg is over extended. Horses with a short body and long legs, or with short front and long hind legs are reckoned to be most prone to over-reaches. These injuries occur most frequently at the gallop, although they are sometimes met with in trotters, and when a horse jumps on the rising ground.

To prevent these injuries the horse must be shod to hasten the break-over of the front feet so that the leg is not overtaken and struck by a hind foot. This is achieved by fitting front shoes with a rolled toe and raised heels, and with the heels a little short to prevent them being caught by a hind shoe.
In addition, to assist prevention further and reduce the severity of the injury the shoe should be set well back with the inner border of the toe concave or well rounded out.

Stumbling

Stumbling is due either to the horse catching its toe or digging in into the ground. It occurs when a horse it tired, has long overgrown feet or goes on its toe due to lameness or reduced flexion of its fetlock joint. A horse is always more liable to stumble when recently shod and before the shoe has worn to conform to the horse's action.

To prevent stumbling the toe must be prevented from coming into premature contact with the ground. Rasping the toe short and fitting a shoe with the toe "rolled" or "set-up" and with slightly raised heels to increase break-over attains this.
A good indication of the extent to which the toe will require to be shortened and the toe of the shoe turned up to prevent stumbling, and for the horse to travel safely, can be gained by studying the worn shoe.

Care of Foot / Hoof

Without adequate defense of its hooves a horse cannot perform the work expected of it, and to keep a horse at work its feet must be kept in a healthy and efficient state. Indeed, for a horse to be an economical proposition it must remain 100% loco motor efficient. To this end its feet must be prevented from breaking and wearing away without any interference with normal function.

The farrier fixing a shoe to the foot without damaging or mutilating it attains this. But it must be remembered that the foot is a living and growing structure and if protected normal wear cannot occur and so at each shoeing the foot has to be reduced to its normal proportions. Thus the preparation of the horse's foot, and the fitting of a shoe, must be based on a sound knowledge of the anatomy and function of the foot.

In many parts of Pakistan, horses which have good enough feet to do light work unshod on unmetalled roads during the dry season have almost invariably to be sent to the blacksmith as soon as the rains commence. Not only has water a directly weakening effect on horn, but also the hooves of horses, which are bred in damp countries, are also softer and weaker than those of animals raised in dry climates.

Young horses require to be shod, or their shoes removed, oftener than older animals, because the horn of their feet grows faster. A three-or four-year- old should generally have his shoes taken off every three weeks, though an aged horse may go a week longer.

Caring for the feet is one of the most important but often neglected parts of horse care. Neglecting the feet often leads to problems that prevent the horse from working. Diseases such as thrush and scratches develop rapidly in feet that are not cleaned regularly. Hooves that are not regularly trimmed grow too long, and hoof cracks and contracted heels may develop. Other un-soundness of feet and legs can be caused by poor foot care.

Care of Shod Animal

The shod foot requires more care than simply attention to maintain healthy horn.
Maintain a healthy shoeing regime that suits each horse's individual requirements. Normally this would involve attention every 4 to 6 weeks.
Pick out feet on daily basis, paying particular attention to sole, frog and heels. Check there are no foreign bodies present, or debris lodged under the shoe, especially between the frog and the sole of the shoe.
Check the coronary band for any abrasions or cuts, and the bulbs of heel for any bruising or cuts due to over-reaching or treads.
Look for any cracks or splits in the hoof wall.
Check the nails are tight and clenches are still embedded into the hoof wall. Loose shoes contribute to corns and are at risk of coming off (being cast).
Note any uneven wear of the shoes and report any concerns to farriers at the next shoeing appointment.

Care of Unshod Animal

The feet should be cleaned daily to remove dirt and debris from the sole and lateral and central clefts. Pay particular attention to frog and sole. This will prevent bacteria and fungus from infecting the horn over long periods of time.
Wash mud and stable dirt off the sole and hoof wall regularly, as these prevent the horn from breathing. Hoof oil or other non medical preparations should not be over used. Oil based products create a barrier between the hoof wall and the environment, preventing the absorption or evaporations of moisture.
Check that foreign bodies such as stones or gravel have not penetrated the white line. If it has, pick it out carefully and wash the foot out with clean water. Check the sole for penetrations. Flat-soled horses, and those kept on stony pastures, are particularly vulnerable to puncture wounds.
Watch for any cuts or abrasions to the coronary band. If over-looked, these can lead to more acute problems at a later stage. Have excess horn trimmed on a regular basis, as wear rarely matches growth rate.

Thrush; Prevention and Control

A noxious rotting odor emanating from the underside of a hoof is a distinct sign of a fungal infection called thrush. The responsible organism, Spherophorus necrophorus, eats away at the tissues of the frog, leaving blackish secretion ooze on the surface.

Thrush thrives where horses are confined in filthy conditions. A horse who is exposed to "clean" mud that is more or less free of manure and urine isn't especially likely to develop thrush, but one who stands in urine-soaked bedding for most of the day is a prime candidate. Horses with overgrown or contracted hooves, those who wear hoof pads, and those who get very little exercise are also more susceptible to the condition.

Likewise, a horse who is chronically lame as a result of another problem often develops thrush in the hoof of the affected leg. The organism lives in the many cracks and crevices of the hoof, and a simple splash of liquid will roll right over these hiding spaces.

Misconception about Thrush

Thrush causes lameness. Actually, the reverse is often true. When a horse is unable to bear weight on a limb, the hoof is deprived of the natural cleaning action and stimulation that comes with walking. Thrush is often a consequence of lameness, but rarely a cause.
Thrush results from dirty stalls and bad hoof care. Bedding soaked in urine and manure can certainly harbor thrush-causing fungi and bacteria, but thrush afflicts horses in pristine environments too.
Treat Thrush with a strong, caustic medication. Harsh treatments can damage the tissues of the foot and make the problem worse. A simple antiseptic, such as Betadine, is strong enough to kill the fungi and bacteria without harming the foot.
You can cure thrush by simply pouring medication over the frog. For any thrush medication to be effective, the sole must be scraped with a hoof pick first, to remove exudates and muck from the sides and the cleft of the frog. Then you need only wipe out these areas using a hoof pick covered with antiseptic-soaked cotton.
The frog must be packed with medicated dressing. It might seem sensible to keep medication in constant contact with infected surfaces, but packing the clefts in and beside the frog obstructs drainage. The resulting pressure can kill the sensitive tissues of the frog.

Treatment of Thrush

Debridement of all the infected tissue is important and cases involving the sensitive tissues may require regional anesthesia. Following this an antiseptic and astringent agent, e.g. povidone/iodine, 10% formalin or oxytetracycline spray, should be applied. Predisposing factors should be eliminated. The horse should be moved to a dry clean environment and regular feet care routine adopted. In severe cases involving the sensitive tissues systemic antibiotics are indicated, e.g. procaine penicillin at a dose rate of 15-mg/kg b.i.d.for 5 days. The prognosis is good providing there is not extensive involvement of sensitive structures.

Types Of Surgical Shoes

Surgical shoes are designed to assist in the treatment of diseases and injuries of the limb and foot by providing protection and relieving pressure.

Seated out Shoe: - The bearing surface of the shoe touching the sole is hollowed out, so that pressure is exerted on the wall only. This is used in cases, where the sole is flat, and must NOT be pressed by the shoe. It is used in bruised sole, flat sole, burnt sole and dropped sole (after-effects of laminitis)
Saucer Shoe: - Extra wide and seated web, useful for dropped sole which follows chronic laminits.
Wedge Heel Shoe: - The heels are narrowed and thickened. May be used in combination with calkins. It serves the same purpose as calkin shoe, and lessens chances of brushing.
Knocked up and Feather Edged Shoe: - The inner branch of the shoe is considerably narrowed from toe to heel and at the same time slopes inwards under the hoof. Used for horses, which 'brush'.
Three Quarter Shoe: - Is one from which an inch or two of heel has been removed. It is used to relieve pressure on corn, prevent, brushing in 'toe turned out' horses and in capped elbow cases. Half of the branch (usually inner) is removed.
Bar Shoe: - The heels are joined together by means of an iron plate of same width. Used in all cases where the heels are contracted. May be used for corns and for weak heels not capable of bearing weight, side bone and seedy toe. Most useful to ensure frog pressure in cases of atrophy of the structure.
Round Shoe: - Heels of bar shoe are turned towards each other and welded. Used for contracted heel.
Three quarter bar Shoe: - Bar or round shoe with that part of one heel removed, which is in contact with corn. Good for horses with contracted heels also.
Tip Shoe (Half Shoe): - Half shoe made to cover toe and exterior portion of quarters and to bring the frog into bearing. Used for corn cases, capped elbow cases, and to give pressure to the frog.
Convex Shoe: - The inner edge of the ground surface of the web of the shoe is thicker than the outer edge. Used for horses, which wear their shoes abnormally quickly.
Rocker Bar Shoe: - It is a bar shoe in which the ground surface at the middle of both the quarters is thickened and slopes gradually towards toe and heel. Used in Laminitis cases. Animal can throw himself back on his heels as this position affords great relief.
High Heeled Bar Shoe: - Used for severely sprained tendon cases.
Rodway Shoe: - It has a double fuller, the outer of which carries the nail holes. There are three ridges on the ground surface, which increases the foothold by breaking the plain surface and also by collecting grit and small stones etc, in the grooves between them.
Martin Shoe: - It has a double fuller like the Rodway shoe but the inner groove is wider and into this rubber is fixed by beating the grooved rim inwards. This is an anti-slipping shoe.

Wraps for Hooves

The shape of a horse's foot isn't conducive to holding a warp, but without stabilization and adequate protection from ground-level contaminants, even minor hoof wounds can quickly escalate into major disasters. There are two effective hoof-wrapping techniques. The first one stabilizes and protects coronary injuries that may extend down into the hoof. The goal of the wrap is to hold the horn and coronary tissue together so the wound will heal without complication. The second technique is for wrapping an entire hoof, which can be useful, when you're treating a sole puncture or a complex heel wound.

To Wrap a Coronary Wound

Thoroughly clean and dry the wound site and hoof. Carefully reposition, not remove, any loose pieces of hoof so you can wrap over them.
Beginning with the bandage, make one pass around the perimeter of the hoof, below the wound and around the back of the heels.
Place a clean nonstick dressing over the wound and make a second pass with the tape to secure it. Don't be afraid to pull the stretchy tap snugly - it will break before it gets too tight.
Place gauze over the dressing to pad it, and secure the square with another pass of electrical tape.
Continue wrapping the tape around the hoof, overlapping each layer. Angle you turns so the padding is covered but the tape goes no higher than the top of the hoof on the uninjured side.
The tape covers a greater area on the side with the dressing. You can leave the hoof as is or wrap the entire hoof for extra protection.
To Wrap a Hoof
Place a nonstick dressing (with or without medicating) over the clean, dry wound. Cover the dressing and the bottom of the hoof with the elastic wrap. Use your thumb to hold the wrap in place.
Cover the edges of the first layer by winding the wrap around the coronary band and heels two or three times. Wind with moderate to strong tension, taking about half of the stretch out of the wrap.
Begin winding in a figure-eight pattern to cover the bottom of the hoof. Wind down over one heel, around the front of the toe and then up and over the opposite heel. There will be a small gap near the toe, which will allow moisture to drain.
Continue the figure-eight pattern as you wrap until nearly all of the bandaging material is used. Then make two final passes around the edge of the hoof wall.
For durability, cover the bandage with duct tape, reinforcing the bearing surface of the wall.

Conclusion

The quote " NO FOOT NO HORSE " is the base of science of farriery. No matter how fit the horse is, it is useless if it is lame. A single miss driven nail during shoeing, paring of sole, or improper fitting of shoe will definitely lower the performance and, in severe cases, lead to permanent disability of horse. To accomplish a better shoeing programme, one must know the anatomy, physiology and anti concussion mechanism of the foot. Aside from this knowledge of advanced scientific research, modern shoeing techniques, better and improved shoes, and new preparations available in market should be known for a better shoeing and hoof care programme.

References

Barakat, C., (2000) Thwarting Thrush, Equus, 267: 55-57.
Barakat, C., (2002) Wraps for Hooves, Equus,270: 104-106.
Evans, J.W., (2001) Horses, Third Ed, Freeman and Company, NY, USA 296-326.
Gaft, V., (1999) Hope for the Hoof Wounds, Equus, 260: 79-83.
Higgins, A.J. and I.M. Wright (1999) Equine Manual, Saunders Publications, London, 856-887.
Kacker, R.N. and B.S. Panwar (1996) Text Book of Equine Husbandry, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 191-211.
Kilby, E., (1999) Hooves Speak for Themselves, Equus, 273: 79-88.
McGraw, E., (2002) Treatment Tenderly, Equus, 291: 37-43.
Meszoly, J., (1999) Get a Grip, Equus, 279: 29-34.
Wyn-jones, G., (1998) Equines Lameness, Blackwell Scientific Publications, London, 28-41.

About The Author

Lieutenant Colonel Muhammad Ashraf was commissioned in 1986 in Remount Veterinary and Farms Corps and is a veterinary graduate, University of Agriculture Faisalabad. He got M.Sc (Hons) in 1985 and Ph.D. in Veterinary Pathology from his mother institute in 2002. Besides an author of a book "Islamic Encyclopedia of Animals", a colossal amount of his articles on technical, general knowledge and literature have been published in well-known journals, magazine and newspapers. Held various command, staff and instructional appointments and presently he is serving as Commandant, Army Veterinary School Sargodha.